Chapter 11: Agriculture

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Chapter 11: AgricultureField NoteChanging GreensRoundup Ready soybeans are a genetically modified soybean that can grow in more arid regions of the countryorganic agricultureproduction of crops without the use of synthetic or industrially produced pesticides and fertilizerson the rise in North AmericaMost organic foods are sold in the global economic coreUnited States, Canada, Japan, Europe and Australiathe best-selling organic crops in the US are fruits and vegetables What Is Agriculture, and Where Did Agriculture Begin?agriculture is the deliberate tending of crops and livestock to produce food, fee, fiber, and fuelprimary economic activitiesextraction of economically valuable products from the earth including agriculture, ranching, hunting, and gathering, fishing, forestry, mining, and quarryingsecondary economic activities take a primary product and change it into something else (toys, ships, processed foods)manufacturing is the principal secondary economic activitytertiary economic activitiesservice industries that connect producers to consumers and facilitate commerce and trade or help people meet their needsbankers, lawyers, doctors, teachers, belong the the tertiary sector quaternaryquinary economic activitiesHunting, Gathering, and Fishing the most common means of substinence before agriculture depended on where people livedTerrain and Toolshunter-gatherers worked on perfecting tools, controlling fires, and adapting environments to their needsthe first tools used in hunting were simple clubsthe controlled use of fire was another importunes early achievement of human communitieshumans harvested shellfish, trapped fish by cutting small patches of standing water off from the open seainvented harpoons, hooks, and baskets to catch fishusing tools and fire, human communities altered their environments, which helped to establish more reliable food suppliesThe First Agricultural Revolutionplant domesticationSoutheast and South Asia were the roots of plant domesticationroot cropscrops that are reproduced by cultivating either the roots or cuttings from the plantsseed cropsplants that are reproduced by cultivating seedsthe cultivation of seed crops marked the beginning of the First Agricultural Revolutiona number of changes occurred in Southwest Asia along with plant domesticationwheat and barley grew well in the warm climateMesopotamia provided irrigable fields for farmingdiffusion of crops and seeds was greatly accelerated by worldwide trade and communications networks established with the development of mercantilism and European colonialismDomestication of Animals some scholars believe that animal domestication began earlier than plant cultivation, but others argue that animal domestication began as recently as 8000 years ago goats, sheep, and pigs became part of a rapidly growing array of domesticated animals, and in captivity they changed considerably from their wild state as with the growing of root crops, the notion of animal domestication must have emerged over time, in stages process of animal domestication began as people became more sedentaryin Southwest Asia, people domesticated the goat, sheep, and camelSoutheast Asians domesticated several kinds of pigs, the water buffalo, chickens, and some water fowlin East India and West Burma people domesticated cattle in Central Asia, people domesticated the yak, horse, some species of goats, and sheepefforts to domesticate animals continue todayin East Africa people are attempting to domesticate the elandthe first place where domesticated plants and animals were successfully integrated was Southwest Asia (Fertile Crescent)Subsistence Agriculturegrowing only enough food to survivefarmers often hold land in common; surpluses are shared by all the members of the community; accumulation of personal wealth is restricted; and individual advancement at the cost of the group as a whole is limiteddeclined during the 1900s with the diffusion of industrialized agriculture and the goal of constantly increasing production both to feed growing populations and to sell more agricultural goodsa return to subsistence agriculture has taken hold in parts of the world where farmers feel production for the global market has not benefited from either financially or culturallyindigenous people in the southern Mexican states of Oaxaca, Chiapas, and Guerreroshifting cultivationfound primarily in tropical and subtropical zones slash-and-burn agricultureone kind of shifting cultivation reflecting the central role of the controlled use of fire in places where this technique is usedtrees are cut down and all existing vegetation is burned offa layer of ash from the fire settled on the ground and contributes to the soil's fertilityHow Did Agriculture Change With Industrialization?Second Agricultural Revolutioncomposed of a series of innovations, improvements, and techniquesby the 17th & 18th centuries, European farming underwent significant changes new crops came into Europe from trade with the Americas (corn and potatoes)new technologies improved production as well seed drill enabled farmers to avoid wasting seeds and to plant in rows increased agricultural output made it possible to feed much larger urban populations, enabling the growth of a secondary (industrial) economyadvances in breeding livestock enabled farmers to develop new breeds that were either strong milk producers or good for beef the railroad helped move agriculture into new regionsUnderstanding The Spatial Layout of Agriculture Von Thunen Modeloften described as the first effort to analyze the spatial character of economic activityThe Third Agricultural Revolutionaka Green Revolution1930s when ag scientists in the American Midwest began experimenting with technologically manipulated seed varieties to increase crop yields1940s American philanthropists funded research on corn production in Mexico, trying to find a hybrid seed that would grow betterby 1960 Mexico was no longer importing corn bc production within the country was high enough to meet demand 1960s the focal point shifted to India, when scientists crossed a dwarf Chinese variety of rice with an Indonesian variety and produced IR8the geographical impact of the Green Revolution is highly variable however its focus on rice, wheat, and corns means that it had had limited impact throughout Africa done little to alleviate poverty in areas where most farmers still work small plots of land New Genetically Modified Foodsgenetically modified organisms (GMOs) found in 75% of all processed foods in the United States the US leads the world in the production of genetically engineered crops some regions have embraced genetically engineered crops, and others have banned them Regional and Local Change changes of agriculture has had dramatic impact on rural lifein Asia where the Green Rev. had had the most impact, the production of cereal crops (wheat/rice) has increased for foreign and domestic marketschanges can be environmental, economic, and social New eThe Impacts of Agricultural Modernization on Earlier Practicesthe state places pressures on hunter-gatherers to settle in one place and farmsubsistence farming is common is Africa, Middle America, tropical South America, and parts of Southeast Asiasubsistence farming has been in retreat for centuries European powers sought to "modernize" the economies of their colonies by ending subsistence farming and integrating farmers into colonial systems of productions and exchangeWhat Imprint Does Agriculture Make On The Cultural Landscape?the checkerboard pattern on the landscape reflects the pattern of land survey system and land ownership in much of the country reflects the cadastral system rectangular survey systemappears in checkerboards across agricultural fieldstownship-and-range systemdesigned to facilitate the movement of non-Indians evenly across farmlands of the US interiorimposed a rigid grid like pattern on the landland was bought and sold in whole, half, or quarter sectionsmetes and bounds surverynatural features were used to demarcate irregular parcels of landlong-lot survey system divided land into narrow parcels stretching back from rivers, roads, or canalsprimogenitureall land passes to the eldest son in areas where land is divided among heirs, however, considerable fragmentation can occur over time Villagestraditional farm-village life is still common in India, Subsaharan Africa, China, and Southeast Asiain India, farming, much of it subsistence farming, still occupies over 60 percent of the populationvillages must not use land where crops could growin the hilly regions of Europe, villages frequently are clustered on hills, leaving the level land for farming in many low-lying areas of Western Europe, villages are located on dikes and levees, so they often take on linear characteristics in many parts of the world, farm villages were fortified to protect their inhabitants against marauders10,000 years ago, the first farmers in the Fertile Crescent faced attacks from the horsemen of Asia's steppes and clustered together to ward off this dangermore modern villages, notably planned rural settlements, may be arranged on a grid pattern half of the world's people still reside in villages and rural areasFunctional Differentiation Within Villagesthe range in size and quality of houses, representing their owners' wealth and standing in the community, shows social stratificationin Africa, and most other places, a higher social position in the community is associated with a more impressive housethe house of the chief or headman may not only be more elaborate than others but may also be in a more prominent locationin India, caste still strongly influences daily lifethe functional differentiation of buildings is greatest in Western cultures, where a single farmstead may contain as many buildings as an entire hamlet elsewhere in the worldthe spaces North American farms take up can exceed the spaces used by entire villages in Japan, China, and other agrarian regions where space is at a greater premiumHow is Agriculture Currently Organized Geographically, and How Has Agribusiness Influenced The Contemporary Geography of Agriculturewe must consider the effects of different climate and soil conditions, variations in farming methods and technology, the role of gov'ts and social norms, and the lasting impacts of historycommercial farming has come to dominate in the world's economic core, as well as some of the places in the semi-periphery and periphery commercial agriculturebegan in the 18th and 19th centuries when Europe became a market for agricultural products from around the world major changes in transportation and food storage, especially refrigeration, further intertwined agricultural production and food processing regions around the world during the 20th centuryone major impact of colonial agriculture was the establishment of monoculturedependence on a single agricultural commodityThe World Map of Climatesclimate patterns have a large impact on what's grown whereKoppen Climate Classification Systemclassifies the world's climates in the basis of temperature and precipitationclimatic regionsareas with similar climatic characteristicsThe World Map of Agricultureunderstanding the major agricultural zones requires looking at environmental and social variablesthere is a correlation between climate and agricultureCash Crops and Plantation Agriculturecolonialism profoundly shapes nonsubsistence farming in many poorer countriescolonial powers implemented agriculture systems to benefit their needs, a practice that has tended to lock poorer countries into production of one or two "cash" cropscash farming continues to provide badly needed moneyplantation agriculturewhen cash crops are grown on large estatesplantations are colonial legacies that persist in poorer, primarily tropical, countries along with subsistence farming multinational corporations have tenaciously protected their economic interests in plantationsCommercial Livestock, Fruit, and Grain Agriculturethe largest areas of commercial agriculture lie outside the tropicsmixed livestock and crop farming is widespread is more humid parts of the midlatitudes, including much of the eastern US, western Europe, and western Russialivestock ranching raising of domesticated animals for the production of meat and by-products, such as leather and woolsubsistence agriculturesubsistence crop and livestock farmingintensively subsistence farmingchiefly riceintensively subsistence farming chiefly wheat and other crops mediterranean agriculturespecialized farming occurs only in areas where the dry summer Mediterranean climates prevails along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, in parts of California and Oregon, in central Chile, at South Africa's Cape, and in parts of Australiadrug agriculturefarmers in the periphery often find it more profitable to cultivate poppy, coca, or marijuana plantsinformal agriculturemillions of people cultivate small plots of land inane around their homes for domestic consumption or to trade informally with othersPolitical Influences on Agriculturethe European colonial period provides a stunning example of the impact of political circumstances on agriculturea common way governments influence agriculture is through tax regulations and subsidies favoring certain land usesSocio-cultural Influences on Agricultureluxury crops coffee is one of the most importantas incomes rise, many people start consuming more meat and processed foods, seek out better quality fruits and vegetables, or demand fresh produce all year longpeople's changing tastes also shape the geography of agricultureAgribusiness and the Changing Geography of Agricultureagribusinessencompassing term for the businesses that provide a vast array of goods and services to support the agricultural industrypoultry business/productionbc of agribusiness, the range & variety of products on the shelves of urban supermarkets in the US is a world apart from the constant quest for sufficient, nutritionally balanced food that exists in some places Environmental Impacts of Commercial Agriculturethe growing demand for protein-rich foods and more efficient technologies are leading to overfishing in many regions of the world the industrialization and commercialization of ag. has accelerated the pace and extent of agriculture's impact on the environment in recent timessignificant agriculturally driven changes to the environment go far beyond the simple clearing of land growth of organic farming & use of local foods can benefit the environment The Challenge of Feeding Everyoneworldwide, nearly 1 billion people are malnourishedcurrently, enough food is produced worldwide to feed the Earth's populationas cities expand, precious farmland is lost to buildings and retail developmentpopulation growth and the loss of agricultural land help to explain why global food prices have been on the risefood desertsareas with limited access to fresh, nutritious foodsurban food deserts are usually found in low-income neighborhoods